Introduction In its 2025 Advisory Opinion on Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (AO), the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave its imprimatur to the aim of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels as the current ‘consensus target’ of the Paris Agreement (para 224), consciously abandoning the target of ‘well…

In the wide variety of arguments that defendants have brought up in climate change litigation, one argument is a constant. This is the argument that climate change is a problem of collective causation. That is: climate change harm is caused by actions and omissions of many actors and it would be scientifically impossible to attribute specific climate…